A Grammar of HdiHdi is a hitherto undescribed language spoken in northern Cameroon. The language belongs to the Central Branch of Chadic. The aim of the book is to provide a fairly complete description of the grammar of this language. Consequently, the grammar describes the phonology, morphology and syntax of Hdi and the semantic and discourse functions coded in this language. Most clauses in Hdi are verb-initial, with the subject directly following the verb. The object is often marked by a preposition. What makes Hdi unusual is that the object-marking preposition is unique and does not function elsewhere as a locative preposition. Another interesting feature of Hdi is that there are two types of clauses, pragmatically independent and pragmatically dependent, and that the difference between these is coded by different tense and aspectual systems. In addition, there are two clausal orders for complex sentences: The order embedded clause-matrix clause codes one type of modality, while the order matrix clause-embedded clause codes another. The language also has a rich system of verbal extensions coding the semantic roles of arguments and adjuncts and the direction of movement. The grammar is of interest not only to linguists working in African, Chadic and Afroasiatic linguistics, but also to general linguists, since it describes phenomena rarely seen in other languages of the world. The grammar is described in terms accessible to linguists working within various theoretical frameworks. |
Contents
5 Imperative modality | 274 |
52 The perfective in the imperative | 275 |
53 Object coding in the imperative | 276 |
54 Number distinction in the imperative | 277 |
55 Politeness and the imperative modality | 279 |
62 The subjunctive mood in the independent imperfective aspect | 280 |
63 The perfective aspect and subjunctive modality | 284 |
64 The subjunctive in equational clauses | 285 |
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7 Tone | 39 |
72 Tone and vowel deletion | 40 |
74 Tone and vowel epenthesis | 41 |
75 Tone and phrasal structure | 42 |
8 Conclusions | 43 |
The structure of the noun phrase | 45 |
3 Morphological coding of number | 46 |
4 Associative plural | 48 |
5 Modifying constructions of the type nounverbal noun | 49 |
6 Modifying constructions marked by demonstratives | 50 |
62 Functions of modifying constructions headá modifier | 52 |
7 The order modifier head | 53 |
81 Possessive pronouns | 54 |
82 Honorific possessives | 56 |
83 Unspecified possessor | 57 |
9 Topicalizing modification | 58 |
10 The collective | 59 |
11 Double modifying constructions | 60 |
12 Noun nà Noun | 61 |
13 Modification through the preposition ngá for | 62 |
14 Modification through the comment marker tá | 63 |
15 Coding the notion of belonging | 67 |
16 Coding the absence of specific attributes | 70 |
17 Modification of nouns by adjectives | 71 |
18 The comparative form of the modifying construction | 73 |
19 Modification through color terms | 74 |
20 Coreference and disjoint reference in possessive constructions | 76 |
22 Noun modified by a quantifier | 77 |
23 Summary of modifying constructions | 79 |
242 Pronouns in associative phrases | 80 |
25 Disjoined noun phrase | 81 |
Deixis and anaphora | 83 |
3 Deixis | 84 |
31 Proximate deictic ná | 85 |
32 Middle distance deictic yá | 86 |
33 Remote demonstrative á and its connection with thirdperson singular | 87 |
4 Anaphora and definiteness | 88 |
41 An anaphor as an argument | 89 |
5 Specific and nonspecific child | 94 |
51 The coding of locative anaphora | 95 |
52 The propositional anaphor | 96 |
6 Conclusions | 97 |
Verbal root and stem | 99 |
3 The underlying tone of the verb | 101 |
4 Number coding in verbs | 104 |
6 Verbal plural through reduplication | 105 |
7 Suppletive plural | 107 |
8 Functions of verbal plurality | 108 |
9 Functions of thematic vowels | 110 |
92 A hypothesis concerning verbfinal vowels | 111 |
10 The structure of polysyllabic verbs | 115 |
11 Verbal nouns | 116 |
12 Conclusions | 118 |
Argument coding | 119 |
2 Types of arguments | 120 |
3 Defining the terms | 121 |
42 Independent subject pronouns | 123 |
5 Coding of the object | 130 |
52 Object coding through the preposition tá | 131 |
53 Object coding in clauses with the referential marker | 132 |
54 Object coding through position after the verb | 134 |
6 Pronominal object affixes | 135 |
62 Firstperson singular object affixes | 137 |
63 Pronouns and the order of extensions | 141 |
64 The thirdperson plural object | 142 |
65 Unspecified human object | 143 |
8 Inherent properties of verbs and object coding | 147 |
82 Object coding with verbs of perception | 149 |
9 Object coding in the independent imperfective aspect | 150 |
10 Coding the addressee of verbs of saying | 153 |
111 The additional argument marker and verbs of perception | 158 |
112 The addition of an argument to a transitive verb | 160 |
12 Cognate objects | 161 |
13 Arguments of verbs nzà and tsá become | 163 |
14 Independent object pronouns | 164 |
141 Pragmatically dependent clauses | 165 |
142 Independent object pronouns in the stative | 166 |
15 Conclusions | 167 |
Coding the semantic roles of arguments | 169 |
3 Point of view of source in the imperfective | 172 |
32 The functions of the absolutive marker | 173 |
4 Point of view of goal | 176 |
5 Movementaway extension ί | 178 |
52 The functions of the movementaway extension | 179 |
53 Transitivizing functions of the movementaway extension | 181 |
6 Dative and benefactive argument coding | 182 |
61 Coding the dative on the verb | 183 |
62 Pronominal dative arguments | 187 |
65 The functions of the firstperson singular dative pronouns | 189 |
66 Dative pronouns with simple transitive verbs | 191 |
67 Dative coding indirect affectedness | 193 |
69 Other functions of the dative form of the verb | 194 |
7 Coreferentiality of arguments | 195 |
72 Coreferentiality of the subject and the dative | 196 |
73 Coreferentiality of the subject and the locative | 197 |
9 The applicative extension vá | 198 |
91 Partial affectedness of the subject | 200 |
92 The applicative extension and the negative | 202 |
10 The inverse extension s | 204 |
102 The functions of the inverse extension | 206 |
11 The system of partitive extensions | 210 |
12 The partitive extension á | 211 |
13 Locative arguments | 212 |
132 Spatial specifiers dìstá inside and mìstá under behind | 214 |
14 Conclusions | 215 |
Extensions coding the manner of an event | 217 |
3 Tentative extension n ŋ | 219 |
4 Associative extension ndá | 221 |
5 Also extension xà | 222 |
6 Conclusions | 223 |
Adjuncts | 225 |
3 The instrumental adjunct | 226 |
4 The locative adjunct | 227 |
42 The preposition tà | 229 |
44 The preposition mà in | 230 |
45 The associative preposition ndá as spatial specifier | 231 |
46 The benefactive adjunct | 232 |
6 Adverbs of time | 235 |
7 Interjections | 236 |
8 Conclusions | 238 |
Locative extensions | 239 |
4 The system of locative extensions | 241 |
5 The distal extension gh | 243 |
52 The role of tone with the distal extension | 244 |
53 The distal extension with verbs of movement | 245 |
54 The object in the scope of the distal extension | 248 |
55 The distal extension with nondirectional verbs of movement | 250 |
56 The distal extension with nonmovement verbs | 251 |
6 Downward movement extension xà | 252 |
7 Inner space orientation extension g | 253 |
73 The inner space extension with verbs of movement | 254 |
74 The inner space extension with nonmovement verbs | 255 |
75 Arguments within the scope of the inner space extension | 256 |
76 Deictic center with the inner space extension | 257 |
8 The allative extension dá | 258 |
9 Upward movement extension fà | 261 |
92 The functions of the upward movement extension | 262 |
10 The movement into extension m | 264 |
11 Movement out extension p | 265 |
112 The functions of the movementout extension | 267 |
12 The extension rә̀ | 268 |
13 Conclusions | 269 |
Modalities | 271 |
4 Epistemic adverbs | 273 |
7 Normative modality | 286 |
8 The prohibitive mood | 287 |
82 The prohibitive and the a form of the verb | 290 |
83 The prohibitive through an auxiliary verb | 291 |
9 Emotive modality or warning | 292 |
10 Conclusions | 293 |
Aspect | 295 |
2 The perfective aspect in pragmatically independent clauses | 296 |
22 The functions of the perfective through reduplication | 298 |
3 The perfective aspect in pragmatically dependent clauses | 300 |
32 Types of clauses that require dependent clause perfective coding | 302 |
4 The imperfective aspect | 305 |
42 The functions of the independent imperfective | 307 |
43 The imperfective and the point of view of source | 310 |
5 The dependent imperfective aspect | 311 |
52 The imperfective aspect in sequential clauses | 313 |
53 Argument coding in pragmatically dependent clauses | 314 |
54 The functions of the dependent imperfective | 315 |
6 The progressive aspect | 317 |
62 The functions of the progressive aspect | 318 |
7 The stative aspect | 320 |
72 Object coding in the stative aspect | 321 |
74 The grammaticalization of the stative aspect | 324 |
8 Conclusions | 325 |
Coding the domain of referentiality of an event | 327 |
3 Referentiality and the perfective | 328 |
4 Referentiality of the event and adjuncts | 329 |
5 Aspect coding in sequential clauses and in the normative mood | 330 |
6 Conclusions | 334 |
Tense | 335 |
3 Future tenses | 337 |
Pragmatically independent clauses | 338 |
33 Future tense with the imperfective aspect | 339 |
34 The future tense in the negative clause | 340 |
4 Conclusions | 341 |
Verbless clauses | 343 |
3 Identificational clauses | 344 |
4 Property concept predicates | 347 |
5 Property concept predicates through a copula | 349 |
7 Existential propositions | 350 |
8 The possessive through existential constructions | 351 |
X is located at Y | 352 |
10 Clauseinitial deictic particles | 353 |
11 Conclusions | 354 |
Interrogative clauses | 355 |
22 Clausefinal interrogative particles | 356 |
3 Rhetorical interrogatives | 357 |
42 Questions about participants in equational clauses | 358 |
43 De dicto and de re domains in specific interrogatives | 359 |
44 The copula in specific interrogatives | 360 |
46 Questions about the subject in verbal clauses | 361 |
47 Questions about the object | 362 |
48 The role of referential marker tá | 364 |
49 Use of the copula in specific interrogatives | 366 |
410 Questions about the dativebenefactive | 368 |
411 Questions about the genitive modifier | 369 |
412 Questions about the locative | 370 |
413 Questions about the time of the event | 371 |
415 Questions about the reason | 373 |
416 The coding of the perfective in questions about the reason | 375 |
417 Questions about the kind | 377 |
420 Questions about the predicate | 378 |
Negation | 379 |
22 Negation of verbal clauses | 380 |
23 Negation and referentiality | 382 |
The auxiliary xàďú | 384 |
4 Negation of possessive clauses | 386 |
5 Negation through the auxiliary kwálá lack fail | 387 |
6 Conclusions | 388 |
Topicalization | 389 |
3 Topicalization of the nominal subject | 391 |
4 Topicalization of the subject in equational clauses | 393 |
5 Topicalization of the object | 394 |
6 Topicalization of the dative | 395 |
7 Topicalization of the adjunct | 396 |
8 The functions of topicalization | 397 |
9 Conclusions | 399 |
Focus and relative clauses | 401 |
2 Focus on the subject in verbless clauses | 402 |
3 The copula in focus and relative clause constructions | 403 |
5 Subject focus in the imperfective | 407 |
6 Focus on and relativization of the object | 408 |
7 The topicalized subject and focused object | 413 |
8 The topicalized adverb and focused object | 414 |
10 Dative as the head of the relative clause | 416 |
11 Focus on and relativization of adjuncts | 417 |
112 Focus and relativization of time adjuncts | 419 |
113 The associative as head of the relative clause | 420 |
114 Focus on the adverb of manner | 421 |
115 The possessor as head of the relative clause | 422 |
13 Negation focus and relativization | 424 |
132 Negation of relative clauses | 425 |
14 Conclusions | 426 |
Paratactic conjoined sequential and counterexpectation clauses | 427 |
3 Clauses conjoined by the verb lá go | 428 |
4 Disjoined clauses | 431 |
5 Sequential clauses | 432 |
52 Functions of sequential clauses | 434 |
53 Clauses corresponding to instead of proposition 1 proposition 2 | 436 |
6 Negative sequential clauses | 437 |
8 Discourse conjunctions | 438 |
9 Conclusions | 439 |
Clausal complements of verbs of saying | 441 |
22 Subject pronouns and the complementizer | 443 |
3 The coding of the addressee | 444 |
4 The order of clauses in complementation | 445 |
42 An explanation of clausal order | 446 |
5 Complements of cognitive verbs | 449 |
6 The imperative mood in complements of verbs of saying | 451 |
7 Backgrounding and complementation | 452 |
8 Prohibition in the complement clause | 453 |
9 Crossreference and disjointreference coding | 454 |
10 Conclusions | 456 |
Interrogative complements | 459 |
2 Yesno interrogative complements | 460 |
3 Specific interrogative complements whquestions | 461 |
32 Interrogative complements about nonhuman participants | 463 |
34 Interrogative complements about the time | 464 |
35 Interrogative complements about the possessor | 465 |
4 Nonpropositional addressees | 467 |
Complements of verbs of perception | 469 |
22 Nominalization | 470 |
23 Matrix coding | 471 |
3 Coding indirect perception | 473 |
4 Conclusions | 475 |
Complements of volitional verbs | 477 |
3 Subject lowering | 478 |
4 Different subjects | 479 |
5 Complements of the verb kwálá refuse | 481 |
6 Conclusions | 482 |
Adverbial and adjunct clauses | 483 |
22 Overt coding of temporal priority and posteriority | 487 |
23 The temporal apodosis clause | 489 |
24 Subject coding in protasis and apodosis clauses | 490 |
3 Purpose clauses | 491 |
4 Manner clauses | 493 |
6 The auxiliary verb klá take and reason clauses | 494 |
7 Conditional clauses | 495 |
72 Irrealis conditionals | 497 |
8 The negative conditional mood | 498 |
9 Conclusions | 499 |
Comparative constructions | 501 |
3 Conclusions | 503 |
Texts | 505 |
3 ghùzá dùxwál Beer of Adulthood | 512 |
4 skálá hlà Festivity of the Bull | 515 |
5 Work for Squirrels Inlaws | 516 |
6 Conversation between two speakers | 531 |
7 Wives of a Chief | 536 |
8 How a Bat Wooed a Girl | 539 |
Notes | 541 |
| 543 | |
| 547 | |
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Common terms and phrases
adverb anaphor argument arrive-D:PVG ASSC bean dish Chadic languages coding COMP-3PL COMP-3SG complement clause consonant construction copula dative deictic dependent clauses discourse dzà'á epenthetic vowel event extension first-person focus function genitive marker goal-oriented goat guinea corn high tone hlà hyena ìmí imperfective aspect índà INTERJ interrogative intransitive kà SEQ kághá kày krì kùl lexical locative low tone lúmá mántsá marked matrix clause mbàď ká Mbitsa mndú Mokolo morpheme ndá ngá nominal noun phrase object marker occur pákáwá ghúvì Phinta plural pragmatically dependent pragmatically independent clauses preceding predicate PREP preposition PROH pronominal object protasis reduplicated referential marker relative clause rooster sá-ghà schwa sequential clauses sígà skwì source-oriented marker Squirrel stative subject pronoun suffix syllable tà IMPF third-person singular transitive verbs tsá tsí ùvá vàzák verbal vowel xdí xvá yàghí Zinga